Understandings of ‘the family’ in England and Wales have changed significantly since the early-twentieth century, with the law increasingly incorporating alternative visions of family, such as same-sex parents, single parents, step-parents and other forms of family that fall outside of the ‘norm’. Indeed, government policies as well as family relations themselves have become increasingly egalitarian and democratic, with improvements in gender equality, recognition of diversity, and prioritisation of child welfare in family law. Yet, these liberalising trends do not encompass the whole picture. Throughout twentieth century Britain, the nuclear ‘male breadwinner family,’ consisting of a father who provides for the family and a mother who raises the children and takes care of the household, largely remained the ideal. And in the current climate, calls from some for a return to traditional family values and morals suggest that a straightforward liberalisation of family relations was never the case. Conducted by Geena Carlisle, this projects considers the experiences of those who might be considered ‘illegitimate’ families, exploring potential gaps between legal and substantial equality, and where dominant ideologies about family work to exclude or marginalise certain groups and familial constellations.

Fundamental to this project is the concept of parental responsibility, which has increasingly been used over the period in legal and social discourse. The idea of being a ‘responsible’ parent is closely tied to class, age, race, and being able bodied and my research will thus explore parenthood along an intersectional axis. Furthermore, responsible parenthood corresponds closely to child welfare. Since the introduction and ‘golden age’ of the welfare system in Britain, where government intervention (into family) could be justified through welfare (such as the welfare of a child), family law has increasingly shifted towards rights-based language and prioritisation of privacy. In the context of responsible parenting, this can be understood within a democratic framework of rights and duties/responsibilities, where the two must be constantly negotiated. It is interesting to ask how the rights and responsibilities of parents—both in relation to their children and to the state—change, especially in the cases of families that do not fit the norm.

This project explores four different cases of ‘illegitimate families’, starting with ‘illegitimate’ children and lone mothers: It examines the legal and social position of single mothers and their children and ask whether the rights of a single mother, often considered ‘irresponsible’, change as a result. Secondly, The project considers the rights and responsibilities of teenage parents (hence those who are still legally children) and also ask what role the parents of the young parents have in relation to responsibilities and rights, both legally and socially, over their child and grandchild respectively. Thirdly, it will explore the experiences of migrant mothers, especially those who came to Britain in the post-colonial period, such as from the West Indies, which sheds light on the varying expectations of motherhood, family, and work along a racial axis. Finally, the project seeks to examine the experiences of disabled parents, whether and when they are considered to be ‘responsible’ parents, and how (full) acceptance into society can be negotiated through parenthood.